How did comparative education develop in different periods of history?

Summary:

The article outlines the historical evolution of comparative education, a discipline that systematically studies and compares education systems across countries. The development is traced through four major periods:

1-The Phase of Travellers’ Tales (Prehistoric–18th Century)

Early comparisons were based on observations by travelers like Herodotus, Plato, and Marco Polo. Their travelogues revealed similarities and differences in education, laying the foundation for comparative studies.

2-The Phase of Selective Education Borrowing (1817–1900)

Post-revolution Europe focused on borrowing effective educational practices from abroad. Scholars like Victor Cousin and Horace Mann studied systems such as Prussia's to recommend improvements back home.

3-The Period of Philosophers (1900–1945)

This era emphasized cultural context, arguing that education must reflect national character and societal needs. Influential thinkers like Michael Sadler and Isaac Kandel championed analytical and critical approaches over mere imitation.

4-The Phase of Social Science Perspective (1945–Present)

Comparative education embraced interdisciplinary methods, integrating sociology, economics, and political science. International agencies like UNESCO and scholars such as Beredy and Mallinson advanced data-driven and policy-oriented research. Education became a tool for peace, development, and modernization globally.

Throughout its history, comparative education evolved from informal observation to a structured, scholarly discipline that continues to inform educational policy and reform today.

Historical Development of Comparative Education:

The history of comparative education begins with human history. In educational circles, reformers and experts have been comparing their country's system with the systems of other countries in order to improve it. Comparative education is a fully recognized field of study that examines education in a single country or group of countries. Comparative education programs and courses have been introduced in various universities around the world and articles on the subject are continuously published in various scholarly journals. The different projects related to UNESCO and the Ministries of Education of different countries support the field of comparative education.

2- Different historical periods of comparative education:

Evans has identified the following four historical periods of comparative education:

i-The Phase of Travellers’ Tales:

This period covers the period from prehistoric times to the end of the 18th century. Historically, people have been travelling from one place to another for various reasons such as trade, negotiations, adventure or war and most of them were interested in the education of children and sought to learn about the educational systems in different societies. Early scholars of comparative education described examples of societies they had visited or had heard about. They sought to find similarities and differences in the education systems of different nations and their own countries. This period is based on the travelogues of travelers. Travelers to other countries included traders, adventurers and military conquerors. The purpose of travellers’ stories was to satisfy the need for comparison and partly to satisfy curiosity. They described the salient features of the educational systems of different countries.

Although their details were sometimes disorganized and exaggerated, their importance cannot be denied, despite their comparatively low value.

The following are prominent figures who contributed to the promotion of comparative education during this period are as follows;

1- Herodotus

Herodotus (425-430 BC) commented on the wars between Greece and Persia, in his observations he attempted to compare the cultures of the two nations.

2- Xenophon

Xenophon, a Greek, (355-430 BC), described the details of education for citizenship in Iran. He compared the structure and objectives of education in Iran and Sparta. He was influenced by the Spartan education system and wanted the Athenians to adopt it.

3- Plato

The Greek philosopher Plato compared the aims and structures of the systems of Sparta and Greece. He compared the educational systems of Sparta and Athens in his two books, Law and Republic. Like Xenophon , he was also influenced by the Spartan education system, which was state-controlled and emphasized military-style discipline. He argued that Athens should emulate Sparta's educational system.

4- Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar (42-102 BC), king of Rome, was also influenced by the Spartan education system. He also commented on the education systems of the Belgic, Aquitanian and Celtic nations in his writings.

5- Cicero

Cicero (106-43 BC) compared education in Greece and Rome, in his book he supported the government-controlled education system while opposing the family-centered system. Cicero said that the Greeks were superior to any other nation in eloquence and education.

6- Tacitus

Tacitus (116-55 AD) compares the education of his time with that of past periods and explains the differences between the two. He also begins a discussion entitled Past vs. Present, in which he describes the similarities and differences found in the two periods.

7- Marco Polo

Marco Polo visited the court of Kublai Khan in China in the 13th century and provided awareness about the Chinese education system. He said in his observations that there is no fighting in Chinese schools and honesty and truthfulness are emphasized, and because of this education system, men and women live peacefully in China. On the contrary, it was noted in the nineteenth century that the Chinese education system is responsible for the corrupt government system and lack of respect for the laws in China.

8- Ibne Khaldun

The renowned Muslim historian and intellectual Ibne Khaldun (1332-1406), who belonged to Tunis, compared Eastern Muslim culture with that of the West. He also emphasized the need to clarify the similarities and differences between the present and the past, and to understand their causes.

9- Jacob Middendorp

German scholar Jacob Middendrop was sent by the German government to collect detailed information about France, Italy, Denmark, Poland and Bohemia universities.

10- Erasmus

 Erasmus (1496-1536) was a Renaissance scholar who provided detailed information about education in various countries. He also compared the state of education in England and Italy at that time.

11- Montaigne

Montaigne (1533-1592) travelled from France to Germany, Italy and other European countries and expressed his impressions of the educational situation there.

12- William Petty

William Petty (1623-1687) was a professor of anatomy at Oxford University and a founder of the Royal Society. He gave a scholarly discussion of methods for studying the conditions of other countries in his book. He devised authoritative methods for land surveying.

13- Diderot and La Chalotais

Diderot and La Chalotais were from Russia and France, and both scholars have presented a comparative analysis of the education systems of Russia and France.

14- Condorcet

Condorcet was from France. He compared the French education system after the French Revolution with the systems of England, Italy, and Germany and later presented his report to the National Assembly.

In the early periods of history, individuals who travelled to different regions compared different matters according to their own interests. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, long-distance travel became more common. In the sixteenth century, research on comparative education increased. In the seventeenth century, with the increase in facilities and global connections, people traveling to other countries focused on different schools. Universities established during this period also contributed to the research on comparative education.

15- Relevance of the early period to the present day

Like tourists of the past, journalists and tourists are performing this duty in the present era. Travellers’ reports are an unconventional way of learning about other societies. It is actually the first step towards understanding the educational systems of other countries. Eyewitness accounts are still considered valuable and helpful in research today.

ii- The Phase of Selective Education Borrowing: (1817-1900)

Nineteenth-century Europe emerged from the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution and the colonial era. The social and political conditions of these revolutions, and the public's reaction to them, led to educational reforms aimed at improving the school system. For this, it became necessary to borrow the best concepts and educational measures available in different countries.

This period was motivated by two factors. The first factor was the efforts aimed at devising a system of methods and rules and regulations under which foreign educational systems could be studied. The second factor was devising measures through which lessons could be learned from foreign systems so that their educational ideas could be utilized. As a result of these factors, tourists visited different countries and studied their educational systems. The prominent scholars who contributed to the development of comparative education during this period are as follows;

1- Victor Cousin

Victor Cousin (1792-1867) was living in France during the turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars. He was a professor of philosophy and headmaster of a school. He visited Prussia and examined the educational system there. In 1813 he wrote a report recommending the use of the Prussian educational system.

2- Horrace Mann

Horrace Mann (1796-1859) was an American who visited Prussia, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, Holland and England and examined the role of history in comparative education. He suggested that, despite political and ideological differences, many features of the Prussian educational system were useful to America.

3- Henry Barnard

Henry Bernard (1811-1900) was also from America and visited various European countries. He was also influenced by the Prussian education system. He published various journals in which he published many reports on foreign education systems.

4- Mathew Arnold

Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) was from England. After visiting various countries in Europe, he recommended expanding educational activities. In this regard, he asked to benefit positively from the experiences of France and other countries.

5- K.D. Ushinsky

K.D. UShinsky (1824-1870) was a Russian scholar who studied various educational reforms in Europe and tried to introduce most of them into Russian schools. He also visited various countries and examined the educational systems there.

6- Marc Antoine Jullian De Paris

Marc-Antoine Julien de Paris (1775-1848) was an ambassador for the French and Napoleonic governments. He examined the problems arising from the Napoleonic wars. According to him, the solution to these problems was education. He made a comprehensive plan for the study of foreign educational systems and played an important role in the promotion of comparative education.

After the Industrial Revolution, colonialism and the movement Missionary began, and thus imperialist countries introduced their own education systems in their colonies. These countries were influenced by Julian's work.

7- Relevance of the era of borrowing the education system to the present era

In the era of borrowing the educational system, research was mainly explanatory and utilitarian. Even in the present era, theoretical studies are considered valuable and appropriate. In addition, all stakeholders related to education are trying to make learning beneficial, so it is also utilitarian. In today's era, people try to benefit from the educational experiences by visiting other countries.

iii- The Period of Philosophers: 1900-1945

This period is also called the period of cultural analysis. Many scholars expressed reservations about descriptive studies, after which comparative education shifted from descriptive to analytical during the period of philosophers. According to the experts of this period, it is not enough to collect information about the educational systems prevalent in different countries and adopt their systems as they are, but after observing foreign academic experiences, it is necessary to analyze whether foreign academic initiatives can be applied to the country successfully or not. So, the move towards a critical and experimental approach is the main characteristic of this period. In this period a big approach can be found about the relationship between education and society.

This does not only involve borrowing educational systems from abroad, but also discusses the possibilities of success of this system in the country in a cultural context. The prominent scholars who contributed to the development of comparative education during this period are as follows.

1- Michael Saddler

Michael Sadler (1886-1943) was from England. According to him, while studying foreign education systems, we should not forget that the environment outside the school is more important than the environment inside the school. Often, external issues dominate the internal issues of the school. Sadler said that education and society are closely related and schools should be studied in the context of society. The comparison should not be only of statistics but also of cultural, political, economic and other aspects. He emphasizes paying special attention to those things in the training process that are important in terms of national character.

2-William Torrey Harris

William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) was an American who stressed the need for caution in using statistics from foreign educational systems. He argued that each state puts its own stamp on its educational system, and therefore it is not easy to borrow the educational system of another country, as the system that works in a particular social environment may not be suitable for another societal environment.

3- Isaac Kandel

Isaac Kendal (1881-1965) taught at Teachers College, Columbia University, USA. He wrote a book, Studies in Comparative Education, which has the status of a comparative education book. According to him, every country has a character that is the result of its history and philosophy. The character of the school cannot be understood without the national character. In addition, it is not possible to understand the school apart from society, so he does not believe in borrowing the system.

4- Nicholas Hans

Nicholas Hans (1811-1900) taught at King's College, University of London. His book on comparative education is also taught as a textbook.

During this period of cultural convergence, individual experts contributed to the development of comparative education and international agencies were also established. For example, the International Council of Education was established in Geneva in 1925.

The purpose of this was to find out the solution of educational problems and to expand educational data.

5- Relevance of the cultural era to the present era

This period emphasizes understanding these features of the education system. Which give concrete shape to educational systems. This process helps to clarify the similarities and differences between different education systems, thus establishing a connection between this period and the present era.

iv- The Phase of Social Science Perspective: (1945 to Present)

This era of comparative education studies began after World War II and brought forth a completely new scenario. There are two important aspects of this era. First, for educational research, planning and program implementation. Several influential national and international agencies were established. The role of comparative education experts increased due to their involvement in international projects. The second aspect is that the process of teaching comparative education as a regular subject in colleges and universities accelerated, in addition to which research centers in comparative education were established. This marked the beginning of a move from a theoretical approach to a social science approach.

During this period, the tendency to analyze historical factors decreased and more emphasis was placed on analyzing the modern problems facing society and the relationship between education. The method of analysis shifted from the historical method to the experimental and quantitative method and the techniques adopted in subjects such as sociology, economics, philosophy and political science were adopted. With the emergence of a new world order in the world, a new generation of researchers emerged. Sociologists, economists and philosophers also came to the field of comparative education and they adopted the research techniques of their respective subjects in this field, thus highlighting the need for an interdisciplinary approach to research. Social science researchers, together with comparative education experts, analyzed common problems and found solutions to them. The prominent experts of this period are as follows:

1-Vernon Mallinson

 Vernon Mallinson , a British scholar, used the concept of national character to explain the similarities and differences in different education systems. In 1957, he published his book in which he explained how the concept of national character determines the type of education system a country has. In his other thesis, he described various aspects of the education systems of France, Belgium, Germany, Denmark and Italy.

2-Joseph A. Lauwerys

Joseph A. Lauwerys was Professor of Comparative studies in Education at the Institute of Education, University of London, and is instrumental in maintaining the World Year book of Education in collaboration with Columbia University. He emphasized the need for reliable data collection to facilitate comparison in education on international level.

3- George Z. F. Beredy

George Beredy was a professor of comparative education at Teachers College, Columbia University. He edited various journals on education and wrote a book titled "Comparative Methods in Education" in 1964. He is known for his systematic area studies approach to comparative education.

4-Brian Holmes

Brian Holmes was a professor of comparative education who worked with Heinz and Joseph Lauwerys at the University of London and played a major role in research on comparative education. He introduced the problem-solving approach.

5- Edmond J. King

Edmund J. King was a professor of education at King's College, University of London. He wrote a series of books on comparative education. In his writings, Edmund King distinguished between teaching materials suitable for beginners, intermediate and research students in comparative education.

6- Harold Noah

Harold Noah was from Columbia University in New York. Harold and Max Eckstein advocated methods of comparative education that were characterized by systematic control and experimentation.

During this period, international, regional and national agencies such as the International Bureau of Education, UNESCO, and UNICEF also played an important role in the promotion of comparative education. These agencies also contributed to the collection of data, the completion of various surveys and projects, in addition to which several education societies were established in the field of comparative education.

7- Characteristics of the Social Science Perspective Era

i- During this era, a flood of knowledge came and the challenge of spreading it around the world arose, creating a need for teachers to adopt new rules.

ii- The desire to acquire knowledge arose in all developed and developing countries.

iii- The desire for independence arose through movements in various colonies. Education played a central role in this struggle. There was a need to educate the people for political, economic, cultural, and intellectual freedom.

iv- The rapid increase in the population of cities and the development of industries had a profound impact on education.

V- The exponential increase in population created new problems.

vi- Awareness of quality education grew and the need for education that should be relevant to life and could meet the needs of individuals and society.

vii- Comparative education gained momentum as an academic discipline.

viii- After World War II, the centers of power changed, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as new world powers, communism and capitalism gained centrality, and the world was divided into two parts. This division had a profound impact on the national education system.

ix- The United States gained a central position in world politics, and its presence was considered essential for understanding the educational systems and cultures of other countries.

X- After the collapse of the Soviet Union in the mid-1980s, the United States emerged as the sole superpower. The United States assumed a leadership position in the New World Order, while the IMF and the World Bank emerged as its deputies, their policies having a profound impact on education worldwide.

xi- During the Cold War, there was a lot of focus on the development of science and technology, especially after the development of the space program in Russia, huge amounts of money were spent on scientific education and research. Funding for the promotion of education also increased in third world countries.

xii- A new change occurred in the methodology of comparative education and scholars began to debate the topic.

xiii- Currently, comparative education is being taught at undergraduate and graduate levels in many universities, and various journals and magazines are also being published on this subject.

8- Relevance of the era of social science perspective to the present era

During this period, the process of providing information and data regarding education accelerated, in addition to suggestions for peacebuilding through education. Comparative education experts were inspired to work in different education systems and international organizations and they also gave suggestions for educational reforms.